Selected Motets by Josquin Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Selected Motets by Josquin - Essay Example Josquin probably born in France across the border from Hainaut (modern day Belgium) which then belonged to the Holy Roman Empire. According to the article "Josquin des Prez" which was written by Lora Matthews and Paul Merkley, and was published in The Journal Of Musicology, Summer 1998, "des Prez" was a nickname, and Josquin's family name was "Lebloitte". Josquin was often identified as a singer in the Cathedral of Milan in 1459 (Josquin des Pres 1), however, recent information reveals that Josquin did not go to Italy until the early 1480s (Josquin des Prez 3) Some records state that he became a choirboy in the collegiate church of Saint Quentin. His very first lessons in counterpoint were probably given by Johannes Ockeghem, whom he greatly admired throughout his lifetime. This experienced at Saint Quentin are thought to be the composer's foundation of his later connections with French Royal Chapel (Josquin des Pres 4). Josquin's first definite record of employment reveals that he was a singer at the chapel of Rene, Duke of Anjou in Aix-en Province. Scholars speculate that he may have transferred to Paris along with the rest of the chapel in 1948. Josquin became a member of the papal choir under Pope Innocent VIII. He spent the late 1490s in France probably in the service of Louis XII and probably stayed there until 1503 when Duke Ercole I of Ferrara hired him for the chapel there. Josquin was then forced to return to Italy (Josquin des Prez 5). During his stay in Ferrara, Josquin wrote his more famous pieces such as the Missa Hercules Dux Ferrariae and the setting of Misserere, Psalm 50, for five voices, widely acknowledged as one of his masterpieces. However, his stay in Ferrara lasted only for a year as he went to his hometown in Conde to evade the outbreak of the plague. He reaped immense fame in his hometown until his death in 1521 (Josquin des Prez 6). His Compositions Josquin's works include a variety of musical compositions ranging from masses, mass fragments, motets and chansons. From the list of his work, we can say that he is a prolific composer as he was able to write 19 masses, seven mass fragments, 60 motets, and 66 chansons (Josquin des Prez 7). Selected Motets A motet is a polyphonic composition based on a plain song. In fact, the Latin word for motet describes the movement of the different voices against one another. According to Margaret Bent (1997), "'a piece of music in several parts with words' is as precise a definition of the motet as will serve from the thirteenth to the late sixteenth century and beyond. This is actually very close to one of the earliest descriptions we have, that of the late thirteenth-century theorist Johannes de Grocheio (qtd. in Motet 2)." Ave Verum Josquin's motet, Ave Verum is typically used in the Holy Communion and Feasts of the Blessed Sacrament. As with his other musical compositions, this motet was written in Latin text (Ave Verum1). Analysis Set in three voices rooted in the traditional Gregorian communion hymn, this motet "paraphrases

Euthanasia Case Essay Example for Free

Euthanasia Case Essay Let’s start off by defining the word euthanasia so that this paper is clear and then we can get in to why it can be passive or active. Euthanasia is the painless killing of a patient suffering from an incurable and painful disease or in an irreversible coma (dictionary.com). Euthanasia, also known as assisted suicide and more loosely termed being mercy killing, basically means to take a deliberate action with the express intention of ending a life to relieve intractable suffering. Some interpret euthanasia as the practice of ending life in a painless manner. Many disagree with this interpretation, because it needs to include a reference to intractable suffering. Euthanasia is illegal. Now that we know what euthanasia is we can breakdown the two procedural classification of euthanasia (medicalnewstoday.com).Passive euthanasia is usually defined as withdrawing medical treatment with the deliberate intention of causing the patients death. For example, if a patient requires kidney dialysis to survive, and the doctors disconnect the dialysis machine, the patient will presumably die fairly soon. Perhaps the classic example of passive euthanasia is a do not resuscitate order. Normally if a patient has a heart attack or similar sudden interruption in life functions, medical staff will attempt to revive them. If they make no such effort but simply stand and watch as the patient dies, this is passive euthanasia. Active euthanasia is taking specific steps to cause the patients death, such as injecting the patient with poison. In practice, this is usually an overdose of pain-killers or sleeping pills. In other words, the difference between active and passive is that in active euthanasia, something is done to end the patients life; in passive euthanasia, something is not done that would have preserved the patients life. An important idea behind this distinction is that in passive euthanasia the doctors are not actively killing anyone; they are simply not saving him. You would surely not be prosecuted for homicide. Thus, proponents of euthanasia say that while we can debate whether active euthanasia should be legal, there can be no debate about passive euthanasia: You cannot prosecute someone for failing to save a life (pregnantpause.org). Euthanasia has been a very controversial and emotive topic for a long time (medicalnewstoday.com). The beliefs that I have on euthanasia is that is right and it is wrong at the same time. I feel that asking someone to play God is not the way to go. Active euthanasia is just a way for someone to take the easy way out. I understand that they are hurting and are in pain but that’s why the medical field has many different types of pain medicines to keep the patient comfortable enough to deal with everyday life. I think that if a doctor agrees with giving his patient a lethal dose of medicines to end their life is wrong and that then becomes assisted suicide and that they should not have been a doctor because they have violated their oath to protect and heal patients and keep them alive. Whose place is it to decide if one lives or one dies? No one here on earth, I feel like the person that is requesting this type of method to end their life is committing suicide and you are not supposed to take your own life those are my religious beliefs. Another religious belief is that God will not put more on you than you can bear, which means this is all about the endurance you have to preserve life until it is time for you to die a natural life. The other reason why I feel that it is kind of wrong to have a passive euthanasia is because you should not give up on life, you should try all the ways to survive that you can except in the situation of being brain dead or being a vegetable. But then I feel that it is that person right to decide do not resuscitate because that is there right they have that medical right to decide if they do not want to be helped and hooked up on machines just to live. If I ever get to that point I want my family and the doctors to do all that they can do to keep me alive unless in the event like I stated earlier which is brain dead or in a vegetable state. But those are just my beliefs and I cannot change the way others think or how they dictate their lives, everyone has their free will to decide about their life when it comes to passive euthanasia. Assisted dying violates the sanctity of human life speaking from a Baptist person. I agree with that because I am a Baptist and I am a Christian and that is how we were taught was not to kill yourself because you are supposed to die a natural death no matter what the situation is. That means you are allowing God to do His job and that is to letting Him decide when it is time for your life to end, no one can do that for you. Even if you allow yourself not to want to be attached to machines or get resituated you are still dying a natural life. Right to die is just that the right to die but when I say it I mean a right to die of natural causes, not by the hand of another person or by a high dosage of pills to end your life. I understand that if you have a do not resuscitate then that is your choice and I support that choice because you either or going to die or you will pull through which gives that a 50/50 chance. But you are still having your request met by not being resuscitated. so I think that it okay to die a natural life like I have stated before but to have a euthanasia I do not agree with because it is not your time to go, it is the time that you would prefer to leave the earth not when you are meant to leave. Patient suffering at end of life, I hate that people has to suffer but it is a part of life everyone will have their ups and downs in life and unfortunately pain and suffering is life. But the medical field has expanded so far that they are easy to solve the pain or I should say make it easier for patient to be much more comfortable in their time of need where they will not suffer as much as they normally would. I agree that it is good that it is a law against euthanasia, because it does help prevent abuse and protect others. Slippery slope to legalize murder is something that should not be tolerated. Especially with regard to taking life, slippery slope arguments have long been a feature of the ethical landscape, used to question the moral permissibility of all kinds of acts (procon.org) In my opinion it is giving people a reason to want to die only because they consent to it because they have less than a certain time to live. No one knows the day and time that they are going to die unless they commit suicide and still if they do that that they do not know the time they can only assume how long it will take to die, that is just like the doctors giving patients less than a week to survive and they live and extra month so euthanasia is nothing positive as well as the slippery slope to be legalized. If terminating life is a benefit, the reasoning goes, why should euthanasia be limited only to those who can give consent? Why need we ask for consent (procon.org)? If the slippery slope to legalize murder is so right why does it cost for the insurance company to pay for it and why should they even be in the hospital using up space that someone else that needs and wants a chance at life could be at. The people that want to kill themselves should just go ahead and do it at home and save everyone the time and money it cost to get euthanasia. Not trying to be rude about it. Hippocratic Oath and prohibition of killing the much-quoted reference to do no harm is also in need of explanation. Does not doing harm mean that we should prolong a life that the patient sees as a painful burden? Surely, the harm in this instance is done when we prolong the life, and doing no harm means that we should help the patient die (procon.org)? Surely not, we should not kill someone because they are in pain we should do our best to make sure that patient is as comfortable as possible and there is plenty of medicine out there that can do the job of making people comfortable instead of killing them. Like I said previously that if God wanted them to die then he would make them die of natural causes not because of euthanasia, which is not the way to doing things in my eyes. You are causing more pain on them by trying to end their life because you do not know if the way they die will be a pain free death with the euthanasia it could choke them or it could cause them tremendous pain before they die nothing on earth is pain free. Doctors are made to save lives not take them, that is their oath and that is what they should do is save the patient and keep them as pain free as possible to make their life a lot more comfortable. I will neither give a deadly drug to anybody if asked for it, nor will I make a suggestion to this effect In forswearing the giving of poison when asked for it, the Hippocratic physician rejects the view that the patients choice for death can make killing him right (procon.org). Government involvement in end of life decision, when do we withhold which therapies and allow nature to take its course? When are we, through our own indecision and fears of mortality, allowing wondrous medical methods to perversely prolong the dying rather than the living (procon.org)? I think that we as medical people should prolong life as long as we can because the health care business is about taking care of the ill, elderly, and people with disabilities. Once the medicine starts not to work any longer then it is up to that person and family to request that they no longer get any medication (treatment) and allow them to die a natural life even if that means them dying in pain. That is the only time that I feel that a person should stop trying to prolong life is when nothing else is working for them and they are ready to suffer the pain to die a natural death. Euthanasia is definitely not the answer. However, I think that it sad that the government has to make decisions on infants and elderly people with disabilities that cannot stand up for themselves and make the decision in a way they are just kind of treated like a number, or who they think will live the longest will get to live and the people that cannot make it to live they are wrote off. Palliative (end of life) care, every appropriate palliative option available must be discussed with the patient and, if reasonable, tried before a request for assisted death can be accepted (pro con.org) And even then when everything is done that needs to be done physicians cannot assist in suicide or euthanasia they can only cute off the treatment and let them die a natural life. There are very few hospice facilities, very little in the way of organized hospice activity, and few specialists in palliative care, although some efforts are now under way to try and jump-start the hospice movement in that country (procon.org). They have very limited options once they get to this point of life. Healthcare spending implications, considering the way we finance healthcare in the United States, it would be hard to make a case that there is a financial imperative compelling us to adopt physician-assisted suicide in an effort to save money so that others could benefit (procon.org).. In so many ways that sounds so harsh but the reality of it is true. If it was legal for physicians to assist in suicide then they are saying that more people could be helped due to the fact that they are killing people off to save more money for others to be taken care of. In a way they are saying that they are saving money from people with terminally ill disease will make it better for the healthier person, which is just my opinion and what I am getting from the information. Savings to governments could become a consideration. Drugs for assisted suicide cost about $35 to $45, making them far less expensive than providing medical care. This could fill the void from cutbacks for treatment and care with the treatment of death (procon.org). I did not know that it cost as less as $35 to kill someone off, that is sad. But it will save a lot of money in the end. However, I am still against physician assisted suicide and euthanasia. Social groups at risk of abuse, those who died by physician-assisted suicide were more likely to be college graduates, more likely to be Asian, somewhat younger, more likely to be divorced, and more likely to have cancer or amytrophic lateral sclerosis the reason for more people with cancer wanting assisted suicide or euthanasia is because they know that there is ultimately no cure for this disease and they feel like they want to skip out on all the pain before it gets that bad. Moreover, although 2.6 percent of Oregonians are African American, no African American patients have chosen assisted suicide (procon.org). Since I am African American I see that those of my ethnicity have the same views as I do about physician assisted suicide and euthanasia in Oregon where it is legal for this to happen. It just shows that just because you live in a state that allow these things to happen does not mean that everyone believes in going out (dying) like that, they as well want to get the best treatment they can get until there is no more treatment that can get done. But even if they wanted to get it done they have to say it and have it in writing a certain amount of time within a certain amount of days for any of this to happen. Religious concerns, some wonder if it is right for you to commit suicide or if it’s okay to ask someone to take you out of your misery which is euthanasia. Well it is not right why put that sin on yourself and then why go ahead and involves someone else in your sin to get them to sin for your benefit? That is wrong on all kind of accounts. If you think that you want to do something that is morally wrong then you go ahead and do that, but do not involve an innocent person into the situation because we are all held accountable for our sins, this just goes off my beliefs and background. But Catholic leaders and moral teachers, they believe that life is the most basic gift of a loving God- a gift over which we have stewardship but not absolute dominion. Our tradition, declaring a moral obligation to care for our own life and health and to seek such care from others, recognizes that we are not morally obligated to use all available medical procedures in every set of circumstances. But that tradition clearly and strongly affirms that as a responsible steward of life one must never directly intend to cause ones own death, or the death of an innocent victim, by action or omission (procon.org) both of our views seems to match up, so do you think it is right or wrong? Living wills can be used to refuse extraordinary, life-prolonging care and are effective in providing clear and convincing evidence that may be necessary under state statutes to refuse care after one becomes terminally ill (procon.org). It is always a good thing to have a living will so that your plans can be carried out by your family. Having this document will cut out a lot confusion and questionable decisions because you have documentation off everything. Without a living will then there is where the problems come from and that’s when the medical office staff have to get involved in it as well as other authorities. In Texas, where I live physician assisted suicide is illegal and I think that it should remain that way. Because there is no need for a doctor to help you commit suicide just because you are uncomfortable in life. That’s just like making regular suicide legal and not doing anything to those people that are trying to harm themselves when they really need a doctor to help them and care for them which is what doctors are supposed to do. In Texas it is illegal for physician assisted suicide. It is considered a class c misdemeanor if no suicide or bodily injury results, which means that they attempted to commit suicide but it did not go right. But if it does go right and the doctor helps kill the patient then it is a state jail felony, which means that the suicide was attempted with bodily injury. Then after that I randomly decided to pick Minnesota as my other state to see what the differences were in laws. Again it is illegal for physician assisted suicide in Minnesota and the conditions are way harder than in Texas. In Minnesota you receive up to 15 years in prison and/or a fine up to 30,000 if suicide results; up to seven years in prison and/or a fine up to 14,000 if attempted suicide results. The differences between the two are fines and different types of cases, in Texas it could be a class c misdemeanor whereas in Minnesota you will go to jail or pay the fines. In conclusion, you have seen and read all of the information above and it clearly states that I am against physician assisted suicide or euthanasia. It is morally wrong to kill someone and it is morally wrong to kill someone else to take their pain away. Minnesota laws are a lot stricter than Texas laws for as physician assisted suicide and euthanasia. Which I thought Texas would be where I live, would have the stronger laws with the harsher punishment which surprised me. I learned a lot throughout this paper and learned that there is a right and a wrong way to do things in the medical field and you have to follow command. It is your duty to protect and save lives rather than end them. I do however; agree that it is right to die a natural life. REFERENCES Dictionary.com (2013) Retrieved from: http://dictionary.reference.com/ (n.d.)(2010) Retrieved from: http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/182951.php (n.d.) Retrieved from: http://www.pregnantpause.org/euth/types ProCon.org (2013) Retrieved from: http://euthanasia.procon.org/view.resource.php?resourceID=000126

Causal Information as Reward for Children

Causal Information as Reward for Children Loredana Lenghel Life-span Developmental Psychology 1. Details of the applicant: Loredana Lenghel 2. Title of the proposal: Keeping Children Engaged – Causal Information as Reward 3. Summary of the proposed research This study proposes research on the effects of causal information as reward on the intrinsic motivation of children. Causal information has been shown to maintain task engagement in children better than tangible rewards because it touches children’s innate interest in the world. A repeated measures experimental design with children aged 8 to 10 will be used to establish if indeed the intrinsic motivation of children is not undermined by causal information as reward. The results have implications in areas such as education and learning. 4. Keywords Intrinsic motivation, causal information, reward, education 5a. Research topic Motivation to fulfill personal needs is what drives people to act. Being defined as â€Å"the reasons underlying behavior† (Guay et al., 2010, p. 712), it is understandable why it is important to establish the building blocks of motivation and how these can be manipulated in order to preserve people’s sense of fulfillment. Motivation has been a topic widely investigated within the social sciences, there being several theories that attempt to explain this process. The most common distinction encountered in the literature is between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation (Ryan Deci, 2000). Intrinsic motivation is seen as inherently volitional; it is the force that drives actions and sustains activities due to personal desires as it is associated to personal enjoyment, interest, pleasure or high engagement. In contrast, extrinsic motivation is seen as governed by reinforcement factors; this type of motivation implies doing activities due to reasons that are external to the ta sk, such as receiving a reward (Lai, 2011). The differences between these types of motivations can be associated with the quality of task outcomes. For instance, task outcomes such as spelling, writing or vocabulary development represent only a narrow range in which the relevance of these motivation forms can be observed. Thus, an important area where intrinsic versus extrinsic motivation needs to be taken into account is education and learning. The relevance and importance of this proposed study can be understood when looking at how children’s motivation develops. Research on children’s intrinsic motivation shows that it is not a stable construct. Intrinsic motivation tends to decrease with age, ninth graders exhibiting less motivation than third graders (Lepper, Sethi, Dialdin, Drake, 1997) (Lai, 2011). However, some evidence shows that after the age of 15, there is again an increase in this type of motivation (Gillet, Vallerand, Lafreniere, 2012). One study argues that academic intrinsic motivation stabilize s as one advances in age. They found that between the ages of 9 and 17, motivation can be seen as having cumulative effects. Information about motivation at one age can be used to predict further motivation. Moreover, they argued that academic motivation is relevant for the school curriculum, showing a decline for sciences and reading. Another point touched upon was that children with low motivation at the beginning of schooling are at risk and lack future interest in learning (Gottfried, Fleming, Gottfried, 2001). What is more, studies suggest that before starting school, children are generally intrinsically motivated, eager and excited about learning. This effect then diminishes and some children show reluctance towards studying. This is why having an efficient method to nurture children’s motivation can have a positive effect on their future motivation. It also shows that a method is necessary to help maintain academic interest in subjects for which children’s intr insic motivation to learn declines. Notwithstanding these findings, society has taken a problematic approach to maintaining children’s motivation. Several studies have shown that rewarding someone for doing a certain task can diminish their intrinsic motivation. (Lai, 2011) (Hagger Chatzisarantis, 2011) (Lepper, Sethi, Dialdin, Drake, 1997). Deci et al. (2001) have investigated the effect of different kinds of rewards on the motivation of children. They argue that rewards are composed of two aspects: the informational and the controlling aspects. The informational aspect of a reward conveys self-determined competence and can enhance intrinsic motivation whereas the controlling aspect is what determines the external perception of locus of control and can decrease intrinsic motivation. The authors looked at verbal and tangible rewards to establish which one is more likely to be seen as informational or controlling. Their results showed that tangible, task-contingent rewards undermined the intrinsic motivation of children. Verbal rewards, on the other hand, increased intrinsic motivation and were more likely to be seen as informational. Another important result of this study showed that whereas verbal rewards are beneficial for college students, they have a lower effect on children. However, the undermining of intrinsic motivation by tangible rewards was more accentuated in children than in students. This shows that children are more sensitive to extrinsic rewards and that measures to resolve the issue of intrinsic motivation decrease caused by extrinsic rewards need to be taken. Children’s inherent curiosity and interest in the surrounding world also plays a role in the development of motivation. Constructivist theorists argued that children are â€Å"active builders of knowledge – little scientists who are constantly creating and testing their own theories of the world† (Ravitch, 2001, p.442). In their study, Deci et al. (2001) also investigated children’s interest and discovered that offering verbal rewards results in enhanced self-reports of interest, whereas all tangible rewards resulted in lower interest. Chen and Xiang (2005) studied the interaction effect between intrinsic motivators and extrinsic rewards on behaviors. They argued that interest is a construct embedded in intrinsic motivation and that it is the most important predictor of future motivation for engaging in an activity. Their study showed that activities based on interest could have a stronger and prolonged effect in a learning situation. Embedded in this idea , studies have tried to investigate whether children’s curiosity could be utilized as a way to reinforce their learning. It has been showed that children understand and are interested in causal information and derive satisfaction from answering with causal factors (Lai, 2011). A recent study (Alvarez Booth, 2014) utilized children’s interest in the world to establish whether it can be used as reward for task engagement. They used causal information to reward children for engaging in a boring activity and discovered that youngsters showed more engagement when presented with strong causal information than when rewarded with something tangible. This body of literature offers the foundations for the investigation of the effect of causal information as reward on intrinsic motivation, which is the aim of the current study. Causal information as reward is fundamentally an extrinsic factor that can be used to motivate children; however, because it touches upon children’s inherent curiosity and can be seen as having an informational aspect, its effect should not be as detrimental. If this type of information increases task persistence, children’s engagement could increase as well, promoting better learning. Thus, the key objective of this study is to establish whether causal information as reward undermines intrinsic motivation in children between the ages of 8 and 10. It is hypothesized that children who will be rewarded with causal information will not show a decrease in their intrinsic motivation, as opposed to the children who will receive tangible rewards. The innovative aspect of the study is to be found in the manner it uses previous research which found that causal information engages children just as much as tangible rewards and tries to determine its effect on intrinsic motivation. There is no prior research that has taken this approach, making it the first study that might offer some insight into this issue. This insight could bring about numerous implications for children’s education and learning. Moreover, further research in this area could investigate the method in which the presentation of causally rich information could increase learning. One mechanism that we propose to play a role in this process is that of attention. Catching children’s attention with causal information that appeals to their interest can result in more task engagement and thus an increase in their learning process. 5b. Approach In order to establish the effect of causal information as reward on the intrinsic motivation of children, a repeated measures experimental design will be used. Based on the discussed literature, it is hypothesized that offering children causal information as reward will not undermine their intrinsic motivation. The experiment will consist of 120 children aged 8 to 10 doing a boring, repetitive task. Local schools will be contacted in order to gather the necessary participants. The age range was chosen because it represents the ages at which children in most countries are already in school[1] and poses some basic educational knowledge, such as counting or writing. Moreover, the previously mentioned studies showed that the intrinsic motivation of children tends to decrease with the advancement in age (Lepper, Sethi, Dialdin, Drake, 1997) (Lai, 2011). A boring, repetitive task of moderate difficulty is likely to keep children somewhat engaged while not making them abandon the task due to its difficulty. The task will be divided into trials and will consist of children counting how many animals of a certain type appear on a screen. After each trial, they will be rewarded according to the group they are in. Each child is required to do 10 trials. To compare the intrinsic motivation of children, three different groups will be made; each group having a minimum of 40 participants. The first group will receive as reward causal information about the animal they were required to count. The second group of children will receive a tangible reward in order to determine whether there is a significant difference between tangible and causal information as rewards. A third group will be the control group, not receiving anything for doing the tasks; thus being used as a base category to which the other two will be compared. Therefore, the type of reward will constitute the independent variable (IV) of the study. The three different groups will represent the three levels of the ID. In order to establish the intrinsic motivation of children, measurement of it will be done before and after the tasks. Intrinsic motivation will be measured by offering them the chance to do the task before and after the study. In the before and after measurements of intrinsic motivation, the â€Å"free choice† (Thakor, 1994) measure combined with a self-report questionnaire will be used. The children will be told they can do the task for as long as they want, without receiving any rewards. The time spent on the task will be indicative of their intrinsic motivation because it is assumed that their engagement with the task comes from personal interest, as no other reinforcements are offered. If there is no difference in the group receiving causal information as reward in the before and after measurement of intrinsic motivation, it would show that this type of reward has no effect on the intrinsic motivation of children. A self-report questionnaire will be used alongside the â€Å"free choice† method to strengthen the measurements. The questionnaire will consist of items which measure interest, enjoyment and attention paid to the task. The answer categories will be based on an enjoyment scale that will show smileys depicting faces from sad to happy and organized on a 5-point Likert scale. This method intends to make the self-report of children more suitable for their understanding. The measurement of intrinsic motivation will constitute the dependent variable of the study. The innovative aspect of this methodology can be seen in the combination of self-report questionnaires and the previously used method of measuring intrinsic motivation, namely the â€Å"free choice† method. Moreover, the self-report method has been designed with the intention to facilitate children’s’ understanding of the answers they choose. One valuable addition to this method needs to be mentioned. When assessing the intrinsic motivation of children, problems with the accuracy of responses might be encountered even though measures to control for this issue have been taken. It is not guaranteed that children are able to provide unbiased assessments of their interests or motives. However, a more clear image of the results will be gather in this way rather than utilizing only the â€Å"free choice† method, as done in previous research. 5c. Word count (sections 5a-5b) 5d. Time plan The timetable proposed for this research project is divided according to the tasks needed to be accomplished. First, two weeks are dedicated to the writing of the introduction and determining an exact research design. Next, one month is needed to conduct the experiment, which entails finding enough participants and the actual experimental sessions. Another month would be required for the coding, analysis and reporting of data. A final week would be dedicated to finalize the research report. Thus, the total time required to for this research amounts to two months and three weeks. 5f. Social significance (max. 200 words) It is often said that children are the future of society. They are the ones that will take oven when the current generations fade away. It is important, thus, to provide them with all the resources and quality care available. Motivation plays an important role in the shaping of individuals and as it has been shows, motivation is not a fixed concept. Discovering methods in which we can shape the motivation of children in such way that they maintain their innate excitement and curiosity towards learning and knowledge has major implications for their development. A generation of people who retained an intrinsic motivation as the one of children can give rise to a great number or innovations and societal improvement, bringing about higher life satisfaction (Martin-Albo, Nunez, Domingues, 2012). 5g. Literature references Works Cited Alvarez, A., Booth, A. (2014). Motivated by Meaning: Testing the effect of Knowledge-Infused Rewards on Preschoolers Persistence. Child Development, 783-791. Deci, E., Koestner, R., Ryan, R. (2001). Extrinsic Rewards and Intrinsic Motivation in Education: Reconsidered Once Again. Review of Educational Research, 1-27. Gillet, N., Vallerand, R., Lafreniere, M.-A. (2012). Intrinsic and Extrinsic School Motivation as a Function of Age: The Mediating Role of Autonomy Support. Soc Psychological Education, 77-95. Gottfried, A., Fleming, J., Gottfried, A. (2001). Continuity of Academic Intrinsic Motivation From Childhood Through Late Adolescence: A Longitudinal Study. Journal Of Educational Psychology, 3-13. Guay, F., Ratelle, C. F., Marsh, H. W., Larose, S., Boivin, M. (2010). Intrinsic, identifie, and controlled types of motivation for school subjects in young elementary school children. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 711-735. Hagger, M., Chatzisarantis, N. (2011). Causality orientations moderate the undermining effect of rewards on intrinsic motivation. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 485-489. Lai, E. (2011). Motivation: A Literature Review. Pearson. Lepper, M., Sethi, S., Dialdin, D., Drake, M. (1997). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation: A developmental perspecive. In S. Iyengar, Developmental Psychopathology: Perspectives on Adjustment, Risk, and Disorder (pp. 23-50). New York: Cambridge University Press. Martin-Albo, J., Nunez, J., Domingues, E. (2012). Relationship between intrinsic motivation, self-concept and satisfaction with life: A longitudinal study. Journal of Sports Sciences, 337-347. Thakor, M. (1994). Innate: Development of a New Intrinsic Motivation Measure Using Confirmatory Factor Analytic Methods. Asia Pacific Advances in Consumer Research, 116-121. Xiang, P., Chen, A., Bruene, A. (2005). Interactive impact of intrinsic motivators and extrinsic rewards on behavior and motivation outcomes. Journal of teaching in physical education, 179-197. [1] http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SE.PRM.AGES

Essay --

1. Describe how your company will address the five product levels: core benefit, basic product, expected product, augmented product, and potential product. Core Benefit – Every consumer while purchasing a deodorant has an inner urge to feel inflated with the smell of deodorant. The most fundamental benefit or service the customer is buying is towards meeting the urge of every activity. As a company, we would like to meet the customer needs like good fragrance, better price etc. Basic Product – At this stage, it is the basis product which would try to satisfy the inner needs of the consumer. On this stage the product only contains values those are totally necessary for it to function. Hence while manufacturing and selling product, it would be ensured that the product deserve the value for which it is purchased. Expected Product – A set of attributes and conditions buyers normally expects when they purchase the product. Hence starring from manufacturing till selling the deodorant, it would be ensured that, we have met the customer needs from the product. Further, we should try to manufacture different variety of deodorants with many specifications to meet the customers’ expectations in this section. Augmented Product- As per this level, it exceeds customer’s expectations. The new competition is not on what firms manufacture in the factory but between, what they add to their factory output in the form of packaging, services, advertising , customer advice, financing, delivery arrangements, warehousing, and other things that people value. Hence we would prefer to understand the products of competitors and try to bring the different features in the product which will allure the customer. Each augmentation adds costs and slowly becom... ... utilization of the product. Consumers are becoming increasingly health conscious, so it is essential to display the contents of the product especially in the case of food products as most people prefer to avoid high calorie products. Injurious products such as a cigarettes and other related items should carry a statutory warning. Governments issue regulations about labeling from time to time. The government encourages the manufacture of products that are ecofriendly. One such step in this direction is to provide a labeling with the name â€Å"ECOMARK† for those products that meet certain criteria. Such criteria could lead to effective reduction in the harm caused to the environment, when such products are disposed of. In United States, government issues â€Å"ECOMARK†, when the products meet the set of standards along with the requirements of the American Standard Institute.

Ethnography †Amish Religion Essay

In the modern era of technological and scientific advances such important life values as morality, feelings, and faith in particular still play key part in life of many people throughout the whole world. Regardless of various religions practiced globally, the Amish people attract attention of many scholars, scientists, and sociologists owing to their distinctive traditions, rituals, and uniqueness. The background of Amish religion goes back to the 16th century. At that time a Swiss pope Jacob Ammann who is referred to now as the creator of Amish church left the Mennonites, the Protestant community because they poorly observed the rules of the main postulates. At the turn of the 18th century the adherents of Jacob Ammann have set active process of migration from Germany, Switzerland, and Austria to Northern America. Arriving to this new undiscovered world they organized about fifty churches to worship their religion. A considerable number of immigrants have chosen such states as Indiana, Pennsylvania, and Ontario to be their final destination point as they were characterized by the most favorable climate (BELIEVE Religion Information Source). The Amish people concelebrate every other Sunday in private houses. Typically, men and women sit in different rooms during the church service not to disturb each other. In addition, the service is conducted by the pope, a pair of ministers, and a deacon. It has been historically established that women do not participate in managing and implementing services and rituals. As the Amish people traditionally reside in agricultural communities of about 150 people, they think that such human feelings as arrogance and pride are the grave crimes generated in a growing store of knowledge an individual may have. To stay away from this trouble and raise their offsprings in an environment of absolute obedience and submission, Amish people have set their own education system where their kids stop attending school after the 8th grade due to the idea that extra knowledge may harm their perception of the world and incite such unwelcome reactions as arrogance and ambitiousness. The followers of Amish religion believe that the understanding and knowledge obtained during high school and college is totally worthless for the agricultural activity of their community. (Wikipedia). In fact, the representatives of Amish religion still possess characteristic features that vividly prove their strict submission to their major postulates. The following are key points of Amish religion: †¢ Faith and family connections. The Amish consider religion to be closely associated with families as it the foundation for emotions, attitudes, formation of the consciousness, understanding of the world, etc. They believe that faith helps them to be more openhanded, kind-hearted, sincere, and responsible. The Amish are characterized by their own set of priorities established during their adolescence. This includes faith as priority number one, followed by family, agricultural activity, local community activities, and communication. The head of the family is in most cases a man who is responsible for financial and other important issues. Women are in charge of children upbringing and organizational issues of family life such as visiting guests, traveling within the Amish communities, etc. Amish women enjoy quilting and are very famous for it. Typically, family members keep in touch with each other even after children leave their home and create new family. The marriages are only allowed among the members of the Amish community. During their lives most of the Amish have only one spouse and never divorce. They consider faithlessness as a crime and therefore are rarely involved in cheating. (BELIEVE Religion Information Source). †¢ Refusal from technology is motivated not by individual choice but rather by the fact that it may serve as a reason of negative aspects of human behavior such as egotism, idleness, etc. Machinery or, to be more correct, the absence of it, has always been vital question in Amish agricultural community. They believe that technological innovations may lead to ambitiousness and indifference in terms of agricultural duties and responsibilities of community representatives. Playing a key role in scientific development, technology is not accepted among Amish people as it may turn the people away from their roots and origin. Electricity is also prohibited as well as public transportation, telephones, home appliances, etc. In fact, there are several advantages of lighting candles, riding horses, and farming. At the outset, agricultural products grown in the Amish community are organic, as they never include chemical fertilizers. (Wikipedia) †¢ Social behavior. Owing to their cultural and religious beliefs Amish people remain isolated from the rest of the world. They try to minimize their communication with strangers, foreigners, and people unknown to them. However, it doesn’t mean that they will stay away from you and let you die without giving you a hand. Amish people enjoy serenity, freedom, quietness, and peacefulness of their surrounding environment. Therefore, they usually laugh and speak quietly, walk slowly, and never offend each other. It is not typical for Amish community to use cameras because it may be taken as an interference of one’s private life. They believe that posing for cameras bring harm to their worldview. It is also rude to ask questions about beliefs, habits, and customs. Amish people appreciate respect, privacy, and space. Therefore they might not be excited to let the person in if s/he enters their territory without knocking the door (or in some way notifying about the arrival) or feeding their horse/pig. About, Inc. ) †¢ Problematic issues. The biggest challenge of being the representative of Amish religion is the separation from the rest of the world that may be both useful and harmful for the person and the community. Leaving school at the age of 15 is also somewhat unreasonable due to the fact that the knowledge gained during high school and college may become very practical in farming, agriculture, and daily routine work. Newly invented equipment can make the lifestyle of Amish people considerably easier giving them more time for church services and communication within their community. More often than not, foreigners perceive Amish people as aboriginal creatures and therefore in most cases it is very complicated to establish contact between each other. Also, non-Amish people have different points of view in terms of education, sociology, lifestyle, politics, etc, which also aggravates the situation and turns Amish away from them. One more significant challenge of living away from society is emergency cases. Typically, it takes long time before rescue services or police receive information about some emergency cases. Recently, more and more cases have been reported when parents sexually abuse their daughters, brothers-in-law sexually harass their sisters, etc. According to Amish postulates, no aggression should be present and no punishment included. However, in case of crime, the accused person should be isolated from Amish community for a certain period of time depending on the cruelness and immensity of the crime. In conclusion, it would be rather well to note that Amish religion comprises unique traits that have both negative and positive effect on their lifestyle as any other religion in the world. Reference http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amish http://pittsburgh.about.com/cs/pennsylvania/a/amish_country.htm http://mb-soft.com/believe/txn/amish.htm http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/10570c.htm

Ethical delimms Essay Example

Ethical delimms Essay Example Ethical delimms Essay Ethical delimms Essay What is Ethical Dilemmas in the workplace? A dilemma usually arises when there is conflict between staff, and their Individual opinion. An Ethical dilemma may occur within two or more people, almost all workplace has ethical dilemmas reason Is staff may all come from different socio-economic backgrounds, cultures, and beliefs. Ethical Dilemmas in the work place are common issues, and can be a daunting issue. It can cause an employee not to like their Job, or cause a bad impression on others. Many of the different dilemmas that can be faced are favoritism, sexual harassment, termination of an employee without notice, unnecessary delay in pay, working for more than one organization, not doing your Job, and taking excessive leave, the list can go on and on. It can also cause a person to have unwanted stress. As a counselor ones job title is working as a trainer on the floor assisting developmental adults with piece work, counseling individuals when needed, and complying with state guidelines, ensuring that all yearly documents are received, and filed, Individualized service plans are done twice a year, and ensuring the health and fatty of all Individuals. Each case load consist of 10-20 individuals. This work usually comes with a dead line, sometimes It also comes with all staff assisting with the fashion. Employee X was hired as a counselor on his first day on the Job his Job duties was again told, along with his training. However he refused to work as everyone else. Many of times he has been caught locked away in the office refusing to help or assist with the other individuals. Counselor Z has spoken to counselor X, however nothing has changed. Eventually counselor Z went to her director, and informed them of the situation. Upon speaking to the director, counselor Z was informed that they would have a staff meeting with the department during the meeting counselor X stated that hes always on the floor. Once again the Job description was given to all employees. The director even established a rotating schedule in case the need arise that additional staff was needed on the floor. This plan indicated office duties, each counselor will have one day where you were allotted to complete all office work and the other office work days was split. Where one counselor was on the floor at all times while the other counselor had office duties. This seemed to work for a while. This seemed to Correcting the Ethical Dilemma of the work place. Counselor X started hiding away in the office, once again refusing to help on the floor. One day we were so short staff and needed as much help as possible, the director pulled staff from other departments to assist us as we had reached the companies dead line, and the order was going to be picked up for shipment by the close of business. Counselor X stated that it was his office day, and he was not leaving his office. Counselor Z went to the director once again, and tresses her concerns, at the end of the day the director called a staff meeting, for an in service on what Job titles were. When asked what was the issues or conflicts that the department had, or if there was any concerns that needed to be rectified no one said anything, not to mention that many of the other employees had the same concerns. I finally said I had something to say I stated exactly what the issue was. The director gave counselor X a chance to defend himself, and of course he never admitted to doing anything wrong. The director stated that a counselors Job is Just as important, as any other position in the facility. The director also stated effective immediately no counselor will be in the office any one day in any given week. All counselors will be allowed one day of choice to do paper work, if for any reason staff is needed on the floor another day will be assigned either that week or the following week to ensure that all work is completed in a timely fashion. It seemed as if this problem was not going to get rectified. I was not sure if the director has ever spoke to counselor X, it was unclear if he even understood his Job. After weeks, of the same behavior going on. I started to think there is some type of favoritism. I could not put my hands on the situation. I finally went to the union. I was not sure if this was the right thing to do, however the company felt strong about stealing company money, which this was because he did no work. As an outsider do you feel that this situation was handled in the correct way? If you were the director can you think of a better way of dealing with this situation? If I was the director 1 verbal, 1 written, and a final would have been all that it should have taken. Eventually the director transferred to a different facility, and counselor X was fired. This situation went on for more than 8 months. This ethical Dilemma not only affected staff but it also affected the individuals that we serviced. Even though a person track. Now that the union was involved the company has implemented the 3 strike rule. In conclusion to the Ethical Dilemmas that are found in many areas of the work place. As all employees come from different walks of life, have different beliefs, and believe what there cultures believe in. Many people will experience Ethical Dilemmas in the work place, however can it be avoided, can companies have enough in place to avoid situations like this or many others from happen again. No one ever wants to deal with certain dilemmas especially where one has to work.

Photosynthesis Study Guide - Key Concepts

Photosynthesis Study Guide - Key Concepts Learn about photosynthesis step-by-step with this quick study guide. Start with the basics: Quick Review of the Key Concepts of Photosynthesis In plants, photosynthesis is used to convert light energy from sunlight into chemical energy (glucose). Carbon dioxide, water, and light are used to make glucose and oxygen.Photosynthesis is not a single chemical reaction, but rather a set of chemical reactions. The overall reaction is:6CO2 6H2O light → C6H12O6 6O2The reactions of photosynthesis can be categorized as light-dependent reactions and dark reactions.Chlorophyll is a key molecule for photosynthesis, though other cartenoid pigments also participate. There are four (4) types of chlorophyll: a, b, c, and d. Although we normally think of plants as having chlorophyll and performing photosynthesis, many microorganisms use this molecule, including some prokaryotic cells. In plants, chlorophyll is found in a special structure, which is called a chloroplast.The reactions for photosynthesis take place in different areas of the chloroplast. The chloroplast has three membranes (inner, outer, thylakoid) and is divided into th ree compartments (stroma, thylakoid space, inter-membrane space). Dark reactions occur in the stroma. Light reactions occur the thylakoid membranes. There is more than one form of photosynthesis. In addition, other organisms convert energy into food using non-photosynthetic reactions (e.g. lithotroph and methanogen bacteria)Products of Photosynthesis Steps of Photosynthesis Here is a summary of the steps  used by plants and other organisms to use solar energy to make chemical energy: In plants, photosynthesis usually occurs in the leaves. This is where plants can get the raw materials for photosynthesis all in one convenient location. Carbon dioxide and oxygen enter/exit the leaves through pores called stomata. Water is delivered to the leaves from the roots through a vascular system. The chlorophyll  in the chloroplasts inside leaf cells  absorbs sunlight.The process of photosynthesis  is divided into two main parts: light dependent reactions and light independent or dark reactions. The light dependent reaction happens when  solar energy  is captured to make a molecule called ATP (adenosine triphosphate). The dark reaction happens when the ATP is used to make glucose (the Calvin Cycle).Chlorophyll and other carotenoids form what are called antenna complexes. Antenna complexes transfer light energy to one of two types of photochemical reaction centers: P700, which is part of Photosystem I, or P680, which is part of Photosystem II. The photochemical reac tion centers are located on the thylakoid membrane of the chloroplast. Excited electrons are transferred to electron acceptors, leaving the reaction center in an oxidized state. The light-independent reactions produce carbohydrates by using ATP and NADPH that was formed from the light-dependent reactions. Photosynthesis Light Reactions Not all wavelengths of light are absorbed during photosynthesis. Green, the color of most plants, is actually the color that is reflected. The light that is absorbed splits water into hydrogen and oxygen: H2O light energy →  ½ O2   2H   2 electrons Excited electrons from Photosystem I can use an electron transport chain to reduce oxidized P700. This sets up a proton gradient, which can generate ATP. The end result of this looping electron flow, called cyclic phosphorylation, is the generation of ATP and P700.Excited electrons from Photosystem I could flow down a different electron transport chain to produce NADPH, which is used to synthesize carbohydratyes. This is a noncyclic pathway in which P700  is reduced by an exicted electron from Photosystem II.An excited electron from Photosystem II flows down an electron transport chain from excited P680  to the oxidized form of P700, creating a proton gradient between the stroma and thylakoids that generates ATP. The net result of this reaction is called noncyclic photophosphorylation.Water contributes the electron that is needed to regenerate the reduced P680. The reduction of each molecule of NADP  to NADPH uses  two electrons  and requires  four photons.  Two molecul es  of ATP are formed. Photosynthesis Dark Reactions Dark reactions dont require light, but they arent inhibited by it, either. For most plants, the dark reactions take place during daytime. The dark reaction occurs in the stroma of the chloroplast. This reaction is called carbon fixation or the  Calvin cycle. In this reaction, carbon dioxide is converted to sugar using ATP and NADPH. Carbon dioxide is combined with a 5-carbon sugar to form a 6-carbon sugar. The 6-carbon sugar is broken into two  sugar molecules, glucose and fructose, which can be used to make sucrose. The reaction requires 72 photons of light. The efficiency of photosynthesis is limited by environmental factors, including light, water, and carbon dioxide. In hot or dry weather, plants may close their stomata to conserve water. When the stomata are closed, the plants may start photorespiration. Plants called C4  plants maintain high levels of carbon dioxide inside cells that make glucose, to help avoid photorespiration. C4  plants produce carbohydrates more efficiently than normal C3  plants, provided the carbon dioxide is limiting and sufficient light is available to support the reaction. In moderate temperatures, too much of an energy burden is placed on the plants to make the C4  strategy worthwhile (named 3 and 4 because of the number of carbons in the intermediate reaction). C4  plants thrive in hot, dry climates.Study Questions Here are some questions you can ask yourself, to help you determine if you really understand the basics of how photosynthesis works. Define photosynthesis.What materials are required for photosynthesis? What is produced?Write the  overall reaction  for photosynthesis.Describe what happens during the cyclic phosphorylation of photosystem I. How does the transfer of electrons lead to the synthesis of ATP?Describe the reactions of carbon fixation or the  Calvin cycle. What enzyme catalyzes the reaction? What are the products of the reaction? Do you feel ready to test yourself? Take the  photosynthesis quiz!

Challenges of Conducting Interviews

Challenges of Conducting Interviews Introduction Among the most important inputs of any firm is the human capital or labor force, who oversees the whole production process. Labor determines the productivity of a given firm and in some cases, the sales capacity where employees are involved in the marketing process. It is important therefore, to get the right choice of employees in the workforce of the firm and encourage them to perform to their best.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Challenges of Conducting Interviews specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More During job recruiting exercises, it is important that every step is taken carefully to ensure objectivity high standards are applied. However, in many instances human resource managers make various mistakes which may lead to loss of a valuable employee or inclusion into the workforce of the company an employee who is more of a liability than an asset. These mistakes mostly occur during interview process and needs to be identified and addressed accordingly. Human Resource Department Any organization has the human resource department, which is involved with the hiring process and the welfare of the employees while they are working for the organization. It is upon the human resource manager to ensure that the employees that are included in the workforce of the organization are the best qualified in the society (Daly 75). On top of that, employees who are not given the best working conditions tend to reduce their productivity rate hence the human resource managers should ensure that employees are satisfied with how they are treated. With the increase in competition, both locally and globally on the need for qualified employees and for customers, human resource managers must play a central role in ensuring that other than employing the best brains, retention of employees is given emphasis (Daly 98). Human resource managers need to be mentors and coaches of the employees to guide them toward s achieving highest productivity while at the same time they should be able to develop talents amongst the employees (Dale 47). Most importantly, human resource managers have to influence key decision making in an organization as well as being able to propel the organization culture among the employees so as to boost the firm’s output. Job Interview This is a process in which the prospective employee is evaluated by the prospective employer or a mandated party on behalf of the prospective employer to ascertain whether the employee is qualified for the position. In many cases, it comes after the employee has applied for the position in question, and the interview panel or person therefore has some clue about the identity of the interviewee (Billsberry 58). Interview is the main tool of choosing the best employee and requires immense resource investment from the employer. Interviews can range from one session to several sessions depending on the importance of the position being interviewed for to the organization and the kind of a person being sort for (Jenkins 110). Contrary to the notion that interview always helps in identifying the best qualified candidate, there have been many situations where this has not been the case hence bringing in a point of unreliability.Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More This is due to various inadequacies of the interviewing party on carrying out their job leading to loss of absolute due diligence (Yeung 103). It is rather difficult to identify the talents of an individual or how to maximally tap the potential of a person during interview given that the environment itself is tense and it is difficult to know a person’s true picture. In order to evaluate the interviewee interview, question need to test on mental ability, personal character, experience, interests and ability to be ingenious (Lussier 241 ). Challenges Faced During Interviews Many of us think that interview is challenging to the interviewee because this is the person who is going to be the subject during the whole process, but on the contrary even the interviewers are faced with the dilemma of determining the right way of conducting the interview (Lussier 233). The interviewer is faced with the task of employing the best talent from the whole lot of people who will attend the interview and should therefore strategize a way of evaluating who is best qualified candidate. They are expected to be as objective as possible and at the same time to be fair to all people and conduct the exercise in a manner that put the interests of the organizations first (Billsberry 60). The Right Question Dilemma Determining the type of questions that should be asked during the interview process is the first nightmare that faces the human resource managers since they have to ensure that only the right questions are asked. The kind of quest ions needs to be as simple as possible, while they also need to bring out the required response which will enable the interviewer to evaluate the candidate accordingly (Dale 165). The human resource managers also find themselves asking questions that dwell too much on the private life of the candidates which sometimes makes the candidate feel embarrassed. Too brief questions also tend to obscure useful information that could have been depicted later on and most human resource managers are faced with the dilemma of determining the right length of questions to be asked (Yeung 55). In conjunction with that, the human resource managers mostly do not know how to get information of how the employee will perform under pressure without stressing the candidate during the interview process (Jenkins 189). Often, human resource managers in a move not to look too stringent to candidates do not know how to ask some questions which seem to be tough therefore compromising the recruiting process. Il legal Questions The most challenging part of preparing for an interview by the human resource manager is perhaps avoiding of asking illegal questions. The reputation of the organization lies at stake if the interviewers are unable to structure questions in a manner that would not seem illegal (Dale 157). Wording of a question can make a genuine question turn illegal hence the language used should be given emphasis to ensure it does not distort the meaning of the questions.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Challenges of Conducting Interviews specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Some types of questions are also illegal by their nature or by the nature of the answers they require the candidate to provide (Brisciana 28). To some extent, what is important to be known to the organization when asked in a certain way is illegal for example age. Being gender insensitive or biased, concentrating too much on the privacy of individu al and asking questions which seem to be cultural based is also illegal. Stereotyping Due to so circumstances preceding the interview process sometimes the human resource managers can make prejudged assumptions about an individual concerning the ability or even experience about the job (Yeung 93). If an employee is coming from an organization which is considered successful, there is a tendency of assuming that the candidate must be experienced and hence qualified for the job. Sometimes, the answers received to first questions tend to instigate stereotyping in the minds of the human resource managers to prejudge the candidate as either a failure or successful person. Stereotyping also manifests itself when the human resource managers end up using one interviewee as a cornerstone to evaluate another one who comes after. There is also a possibility of some human resource managers having negative attitude towards a certain group of people due to their gender, academic status and cultura l background among other factors (Jenkins 193). It then becomes a challenge for the same person to be fair to any candidate who happens to fall in the group they stereotype hence not being able to actually recruit the best talent. It should be noted that, stereotyping compromises the ability of an interviewer to objective during the interview process which in turn jeopardizes the possibility of getting the best candidate. Prior experience with a certain person or group of people mostly leads to stereotyping (Daly 56). However, stereotyping is not a personal problem as it has been shown by recent researchers but rather a common thing among human beings. Since it is difficult to understand peculiarities associated with different people grouping and categorizing is inevitable and this leads to stereotyping. Recommendations The first thing that should be avoided during interview process is to avoid questions that give the candidate a hint of what is being sort for. These questions will not only make the candidate aware of the answer that is best suited to earn him/her the job, but will not earn the interviewer an honest answer.Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Questions that put too much pressure on the candidate will frustrate the interviewee and generate a bad employer employee relationship incase the same person is employed in the organization (Dale 45). On the same note, it is not practically possible to create the same kind of difficult situations that the employee will face in the real work environment during the interview process. Therefore, friendly but trick questions which test the ability of the employee to solve complex situations are very helpful. Interviewers are also advised to ask challenging questions without discrimination to everyone who attends the interview so as to be able to determine who is best qualified. Research has shown that even those interviewees who seem to be nervous from the onset can turn out to be the best employees when given a challenging situation to tackle (Brisciana 53). Questions that will make the candidates give answers that have much of â€Å"maybes† are not fit because they may not be a ssessing the candidates adequately. Furthermore, Questions that ask the candidate too much about the current employer or worse which want to show what a bad employer the candidate is currently working for compromise the reputation of the organization. These questions also waste the rime that could have been used to do other parts of the interview. Therefore, questions must be tailored at bringing out the potential, ability, qualifications and talent of the employee in a friendly but strictly professional environment. Appertaining illegal questions, Gender sensitivity is very vital during the interview exercise therefore, questions which tend to sexually discriminating should be avoided. For example, asking a female candidate whether she will be able to work with male employees is illegal as it discriminates women (Billsberry 73). Questions that may require the candidate to name his / her nationality or ethnic background should be avoided as they go against the employment law that re quires one to be employed on the basis of qualifications and not ethnicity. On the other hand, though it is important to have enough background information about the candidate, privacy should be respected and therefore questions that require answers that have to do with financial status, family background and age should be avoided. Though age is important, outright asking the candidate to state the age is illegal, this information can be found from official documents that the candidate will present. Due to the wide spread effect of stereotyping, group interviewing is paramount as only the average is done and is quite difficult for many people to look at the same people negatively (Lussier 289). Answers to the first questions should not distract the interviewer’s attention on how subsequent questions are answered since most people will be able to answer first questions superbly but fail to meet the threshold for the later questions. It also helps to evaluate each individual pe rsonally and not as per another person because if the person used as a guide was not qualified then slightly improved case will look like a genius when in reality both of them do not meet the desired minimum. The set of questions to be asked should be prepared before the interview process is commenced and should be done with someone who is not aware of who the interviewees are or will be. Every interviewee should be asked the same set of questions including the tough and challenging questions without discrimination this will amaze on what they reveal concerning the interviewees (Yeung 78). An interviewer who is aware of the stereotype he/she has towards a certain category of people should avoid taking the section that will require him/her interview on the same section. Conclusion Other factors of production are assembled and controlled by the employees present in the organization. The more the qualified and experienced labor force is present in the firm, the higher the rate of produ ctivity hence the need to maintain experienced workforce while at the same time ensuring that the best talented are recruited. Recruiting the wrong people may impact negatively on the organizational culture, productivity and returns hence the great care should be accorded the recruitment process. Billsberry, Jon. Experiencing Recruitment and Selection. Hoboken, NJ: John Willey and Sons, 2008. Print. Brisciana, Michael. Safe and Effective Faculty Recruitment, Retention, and Dismissal Practices: A ISM Handbook for Private-Independent Schools. Wilmington: Independent School Manageme, 2008. Print. Dale, Margaret. Managers Guide to Recruitment and Selection. London: Kogan Page Publishers, 2004. Print. Daly, John. Human Resource Management in the Public Sector: Policies and Practices. New York: M.E. Sharpe, 2011. Print. Jenkins, Richard. Racism and Recruitment: Managers, Organizations and Equal Opportunity in the Labour Market. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2010. Print. Lussier, Robert N. Management Fundamentals: Concept Applications and Skills Development. Manson: South-Western, 2011. Print. Yeung, Rob. Successful Interviewing and Recruitment. London: Kogan Page Publishers, 2008. Print.

Research Proposal Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words - 4

Research Proposal Example Worth noting is the fact that performance management systems help organizations with the predictions of performance expectations (Rashidi 2015, p. 213). Researchers have expressed their interests in understanding whether performance management systems have the capacity to boost employee performance. The study will seek to determine whether performance management systems have the potential to register improved performance of employees. Notably, all organizations seek to promote employee performance in an effort to maximize profitability. With the current emphasis on the need for all organizations to embrace performance management systems, it is important to determine whether a performance management system can really have a positive outcome of the performance of employees (Seiden & Sowa 2011, 250). As highlighted above, organizations need to ensure that employees register exemplary performance. Notably, the profitability and financial performance of an organization is directly related to employee performance and productivity. The introduction of Employee Performance Management Systems was in a bid to ensure that organizations have systems in place to plan, monitor, and review the performance of employees. Many researchers have linked performance management systems with the increased performance of employees as well as high levels of job satisfaction. Therefore, this study seeks to analyze the perception of supervisors and managers as well as the perception of the employees on the role of performance management systems in improving performance in an identified organization. According to Rashidi (2015, p. 211), implementing performance management systems has the potential to register positive outcomes on the performance of employees. Rashidi highlights that performance management systems help organizations to identify the specific roles that each employee should play towards the achievement of organizational

Camping out Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Camping out - Essay Example Camping may be sturdy or even impracticable, but this should not be the issue, it should be fun and enjoyable. Going on audacious activities, discovering nature, all these can be attained in camping only if a person goes camping with the right mind. There is no hot shower in camps; one has to bathe in rivers, lakes and any other alternative. When one thinks about camping, he or she should think of both the affirmative and the downbeat sides. The activities in camping, which are fishing and gathering wild fruits are quite audacious. These can be the healthiest foods one takes in the span of a year. Contrast these foods with the canned foods people carry when going camping. The canned foods do not have nutrients they are just like junk food, but the fish and the wild fruits are fresh and have many nutrients. These activities should not be tough on a person. Someone should do them as fun activities, by doing so they become fun, and the activities make people appreciate nature. People should stop living on their placate zone, by allowing themselves to be adventurous. An example is Earnest’s statement that any man of average office intelligence can make at least as good a pie as his wife (Thurston 201). The challenges that people face when going out on camps should add fun to their activities. Being attacked by mosquitoes and bugs and even camping in flies infested areas should be thrilling. This sounds sickening and horrendous, but why should a person go camping if he or she will not be able to stand these challenges. The presence of insects is because; most of camping activities take place in forests and sometimes on top of hills and mountains. When the activities take place in the forest, it is expectable to find insects like flies, because this is where they cohabit. Camping is tough and sometimes the activities look unattainable. These activities serve to make going out on camps gratifying and fulfilling. There is no need of going out on a camp when

Terrorism Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Terrorism - Assignment Example It surely leads to its participation in every activity in the world. The fact that the USA interfered greatly into the inner policy of Iraqi and Afghanistan before the terrorist attack 11/9 is obvious. The USA possesses enough military force and power to destroy any enemy on its way. The thing is that there is no justification of the attacks that took place on that blue day, but it is possible to seek for the real reasons that forced Muslim terrorists to act in such a way. It is important to find this reason in order to understand the acts of Muslims if it is possible and do something to stop terrorist attacks, which ruin the life of hundreds people all over the world. First, Iraqi has always been at feud with Israel. Israel in its turn is directly protected by the USA. That is why the USA found it possible to introduce its army on the territory of Iraq and Afghanistan. The main mistake of the USA that it considered itself to be invulnerable for the enemies’ blow. It must be m entioned, that it has always been true. The September attack is the most violent and impudent among all those attempts of the terrorists to take revenge.

SYNTHESIS MATRIX about the dangers of smoking Assignment

SYNTHESIS MATRIX about the dangers of smoking - Assignment Example Preventive Medicine, 52 (6), 428-433. Shahid, K. & Elahi, R. (October 19, 2011). Effect of Smoking on Total Serum Cholesterol Level: An investigation of the association between Smoking and Total Serum Cholesterol level from District Peshawar, Pakistan Paperback. United Kingdom: LAP LAMBERT Academic Publishing. The researcher find that some company do not associate with smoker due to the issue of insurance and the nature of the insurance they provide to their worker has a certain limit of money to be provided, higher than for that person suffering from smoking problems The researchers figured out that those children whose mothers used to smoke at the time of pregnancy experienced the issue of shorter height as well as smaller circumference of the head and other abnormalities for as long as 4 years since the time they were born. The researchers figured that a pregnant woman uses a lot of energy during pregnant period and hence smoking dehydrates the body, leading to abnormal functioning of the body tissue and hence affecting pregnancy at

EPI7005_2 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

EPI7005_2 - Essay Example Such inhomogeneties may be a result in some imperfection within the magnet or magnetic susceptibility spatial variation of the object that is being imaged (Christ, 2000, p. 78). The spatial variation is normally referred to as susceptibility artifacts. EPI applied in most of protocols used in diffusion weighted acquisition uses a homogenous static field. Such a field does not normally hold for MRI head. The distortion that comes out of this is significant enough to even exceed ten millimeters. Such artifacts come in the way of accurate diffusion images alignment with structural MRI and are considered obstacles to the head MRI joint analysis of structure and connectivity. Some of the methods used for correction of magnetic susceptibility distortions include the use of a filed map. However, such methods of applying field maps are not reliable and accurate; hence, they do not result in reliable EPI alignment with structural images that correspond to it. The T2-weighted structural image approach that relies on EPI baseline image and still gives account of the susceptibility artifacts is the recommended approach (Edelman and Schmitt, 1994, p. 610). How accurate the reconstruction of the image is depends on the spin’s resonance frequency (rf) which is formed normally through a spatial linear gradient superposition and an external filed that is homogenous and strong. The above conditions have to meet failure to which the anatomical structures relative positions will end up being misrepresented in the MRI image reconstruction. A good example of this is a case in which a spin is presented to a magnetic field that is not the same as the expected value resulting from the magnetic susceptibility. In this case, the geometric distortions process will be witnessed from the MRI image (Reinsberg, Doran, Charles-Edwards, and Leach, 2005). When the spin is increased, it leads to the production of MRI signals whose intensity is relatively low while areas having high magneti c susceptibility experiencing total signal loss (Zhou and Gullapalli, 2006). Question 1A Several parameters have to be reduced in order to optimize EPI image, and they include: A. Reducing the time of echo train length: the longer the length of the echo train, the more time is required by the spin to gather phase error and the greater the distortion witnessed. One of the ways of minimizing the total time of train length is by minimizing the echo spacing. The less the time is taken by the frequency gradient in sampling the signal, the less the distortion will be witnessed as shown in figure 1. The period for sampling is normally during the flat readout gradient portion unless there is ramp sampling. In FSE, the less the ESP or the echo spacing is, the less the blurring of the image gets. In EPI, minimizing the echo spacing also results in a reduction in the blurring and geometric distortion. Figure 2. The sampling time and the read encoding gradient during normal gradient performance (McMahon, 2012) As the segmentation degree increases, the echo number acquired per rf excitation decreases. This in turn minimizes the geometric distortion as the phase error time of accumulation is reduced. Figure 3 below demonstrates the reduction in

Stages in the Model of Planned Organizational Change Essay

Stages in the Model of Planned Organizational Change - Essay Example Before going to discuss stages in the model of planned organizational change, let us get a better understanding of what organizational change actually is. Organizational change refers to those changes that occur in the organization due to the influence of various external and internal forces. Rasing (2010) states, â€Å"The key to organizational change and development lies in the understanding of people's requirements and work towards it†. External and internal forces of change not only affect organizational policies but also but also affect organizational structure. Organizational change is a very important process related to roles and cultural management of a company. It refers to the changes in overall behaviors and roles of the employees of a company for bringing improvement in the overall productivity of the company. There are four main activities involved in the model of planned organizational change, which include entering, diagnosing, planning and implementing change, and evaluating and institutionalizing change. Let us discuss all of these activities in order to know what role they play in bringing change in any specific organization. Stage 1: Entering and Contracting Entering and contracting is the first set of activities involved in the planned organizational change. In this stage, managers decide whether they need to enter into the activity of organizational change or not.

SYNTHESIS MATRIX about the dangers of smoking Assignment

SYNTHESIS MATRIX about the dangers of smoking - Assignment Example Preventive Medicine, 52 (6), 428-433. Shahid, K. & Elahi, R. (October 19, 2011). Effect of Smoking on Total Serum Cholesterol Level: An investigation of the association between Smoking and Total Serum Cholesterol level from District Peshawar, Pakistan Paperback. United Kingdom: LAP LAMBERT Academic Publishing. The researcher find that some company do not associate with smoker due to the issue of insurance and the nature of the insurance they provide to their worker has a certain limit of money to be provided, higher than for that person suffering from smoking problems The researchers figured out that those children whose mothers used to smoke at the time of pregnancy experienced the issue of shorter height as well as smaller circumference of the head and other abnormalities for as long as 4 years since the time they were born. The researchers figured that a pregnant woman uses a lot of energy during pregnant period and hence smoking dehydrates the body, leading to abnormal functioning of the body tissue and hence affecting pregnancy at

Stages in the Model of Planned Organizational Change Essay

Stages in the Model of Planned Organizational Change - Essay Example Before going to discuss stages in the model of planned organizational change, let us get a better understanding of what organizational change actually is. Organizational change refers to those changes that occur in the organization due to the influence of various external and internal forces. Rasing (2010) states, â€Å"The key to organizational change and development lies in the understanding of people's requirements and work towards it†. External and internal forces of change not only affect organizational policies but also but also affect organizational structure. Organizational change is a very important process related to roles and cultural management of a company. It refers to the changes in overall behaviors and roles of the employees of a company for bringing improvement in the overall productivity of the company. There are four main activities involved in the model of planned organizational change, which include entering, diagnosing, planning and implementing change, and evaluating and institutionalizing change. Let us discuss all of these activities in order to know what role they play in bringing change in any specific organization. Stage 1: Entering and Contracting Entering and contracting is the first set of activities involved in the planned organizational change. In this stage, managers decide whether they need to enter into the activity of organizational change or not.

Justice is a theme of all great literature Essay Example for Free

Justice is a theme of all great literature Essay Justice comes from actions and decisions being balanced, in that when someone does a good thing, they are rewarded, and when they do something bad, they are punished. It is the gods primary role to hand out justice and make sure everybody is treated fairly. This theme appears immediately in the Odyssey, as Zeus is considering the story of Aegisthus, who courted Agamemnons wife and then killed Agamemnon. Aegisthus was killed for this treacherous act. This story of justice shows us instantly that the Odyssey will be strongly structured around it. May all who act as he did share his fate! says Athene. This shows how openly the gods in the Odyssey despised the works of those who went against the will of the gods. Both Nestor and Menelaus repeat this story of Aegisthus, and as god fearing men, they know how important it is to stay on their right side because they know what happens as a result of an imbalance in terms of justice. The Aeneid opens however and were told that the poem is based on the founding of Rome and the main string of justice seems to be coming from one scorned goddess, who simply doesnt want her favourite city to be destroyed. The balance she tries to restore is simply an act of revenge rather than actual justice, and rather than convincing the other gods its the right thing to do, she simply bribes Aeolus. Justice is however looked upon a little while later as Venus goes to Jupiter and asks why the Trojans are being made to suffer after doing nothing wrong. Jupiter tells her not to fear as justice will be done and Rome will be founded. Such behaviour seems to recur constantly throughout the Aeneid. For example, in book 8 we learn of the betrayal that a Tuscan tribe suffered at the hands of Mezentius, and in book 9 he continues his evil ways killing Trojans. The Gods have decided to stay out of the battle and so the following events have nothing to do with the justice that is familiar in epic poems. Both Mezentius and his son Lausus are killed, by Aeneid. I see these deaths as acts of revenge rather than justice, although Lausus death is more deserving. The death of his son is Mezentius true punishment. I see these deaths as acts of revenge because Mezentius tried to kill Aeneid, as well as all the other innocent people and the treachery he brought upon the aforementioned Tuscan tribe, and so Aeneas kills them. The fact that the innocent Lausus dies shows that the justice portrayed in the Aeneid is much more malicious, and it doesnt just affect the culprit. Theres also the case of the unfortunate people in the underworld that must wait 100 years to cross the river, through no fault of their own. Justice really does seem obscure in the Aeneid. Another instance of this is when the people of Carthage feel Didos death was just, simply because she fell in love with the wrong man, and through no fault of her own. I believe Turnus death to be the best example of the incomprehensible justice served in the Aeneid. His justice only prevails once they see fit, once it fits in with their plans. In the end, it becomes obvious that while justice is a powerful motivator and regulator in the lives of mortals, it is the will of the immortals that truly controls their lives, and their disfigured system of justice On the other hand, there are moments when actual justice is served. Examples include the groups beyond the river in the underworld and the story of Hercules and the giant for example. He goes to extreme lengths to kill the giant for all the robbery and murder hes committed, and its just that Hercules puts a stop to it, even though its brought about by someone who isnt quite immortal, and so possibly not what the gods perceive as justice. Although weve already established that the gods perspective is fairly warped in the Aeneid. The other case of actual justice involves king Minos, who spends eternity hearing the cases of people, unjustly executed, and finally getting the plea their cases. They are finally being treated fairly, even if it is beyond life. In the Odyssey however, deaths and misfortunes seem to come about through the idea of justice, and nothing else- no malicious or unfair punishments seem to prevail i. e. there seems to be a point behind them, rather than them just being malicious acts of immortals. For example, Zeus becomes angered at Odysseus because his men eat the sun gods cattle, despite being warned not to; however he doesnt let Odysseus die, because the sun god only asks that the crew be punished, because after all, Odysseus did warn them. However he does unavoidably get caught in the cross fire and this is how he winds up on Calypsos island in the first place. Another example is Poseidon. He makes Odysseus aqua adventures a nightmare because he impairs Poseidons son Polyphemus vision, which goes against the rules of Xenia really. It is of course, Odysseus own fault because he becomes arrogant about what he did to Polyphemus, by telling him his name, after hes left. Therefore its just and fair to punish him. Even though hes such a great hero, he does a wrong act and is punished as any other man would be. Then of course, there is the case of the suitors; the epic conclusion to the Odyssey. Odysseus finally returns to find all the suitors and some of the maids running riot in his home, having raunchy sex, eating all the food, and drinking away his wealth. Odysseus is of course a bit bothered by this, so he decides, and Athene, who borrows Mentors image again, agrees that he, Telemachus and a couple of close friends will pick up their weapons and launch them through any part of the suitors they see fit. The fact that Athene helps proves that the act is just. Rarely do gods help out in a way that we can perceive as just in the Aeneid, because most of the time, the punishments are just vicious or over-exaggerated. So anyway, Telemachus sees to it that the ill-mannered maids are hung until they stop twitching, and Odysseus destroys all the suitors so that he and Penelope can live happily ever after, as they justly deserve. By the end of homers poem, everyone has been served the justice theyve earned, both good and bad. I think its fair to say that justice is very important in both plays, but as a modern day reader, its easier to understand the justice in the Odyssey because at times, the events in the Aeneid seem so obscure.

Public Perceptions About the Concept of Medication Reuse

Public Perceptions About the Concept of Medication Reuse Medication wastes: The public perceptions about the concept of medication reuse Chapter one 1. Introduction 1.1 Background, definitions, and classification of medical wastes There is a growing environmental realisation in the last few years, it is recognisable that the worlds environmental carbon emissions, and global warming problems are increasing. Many organisations work to apply green principles of health care programs in their way for going green (Xie, 2012). In the UK, the Centre for Sustainable Healthcare (CSH) the institution which was developed in 2008 to help NHS reduce carbon liberations and emissions by 80% by 2050 by involving health care professionals, patients, and the community clarifying the connections between environment and health care system (Stancliffe, 2014). Waste is defined by European Union Waste Framework Directive (2008), as any substance or object which the holder discards or intends or is required to discard. All wastes created by medical activities falls under health care wastes. The Royal College of Nursing (RCN) report and the World Health Organisation (WHO) described health care wastes as all wastes produced by research facilities, laboratories, and organisations providing health and social care. Moreover, it involves the waste originating from small or sprinkled sources such as that generated in the health course and social care started at home such as dialysis, insulin injections, bandages, swabs, sharps, blood, medicines and incontinence pads (RCN, 2014 and WHO, 2011). Between (80) % of the waste produced by health-care providers is considered non-risk or general health-care waste, while the remaining (20) % of healthcare waste is considered as hazardous that maybe may be infectious, toxic or radioactive and may create a diversity of health risks. Health-care waste consists of possibly dangerous microorganisms with potential infectious risks such as development of microorganisms resistant to medication from health-care institution into the environment, and can infect patients, healthcare suppliers and the public. WHO classified the hazardous health care waste into (Appendix 1): infectious waste, pathological waste, sharps waste, pharmaceutical waste, genotoxic waste, chemical waste, heavy metals wastes and the radioactive waste. Pharmaceutical waste is waste containing pharmaceutical that are expired, or no longer used; items polluted by or including pharmaceuticals (WHO, 2011). Usually not all the medications dispensed to the patients will be used, this is mainly due to many factors such as adverse drug reaction intolerance, relief of symptoms, changing the dose/dosage forms, medicine non-compliance and/or non-adherence issues and medicine being expired (Dharmender, 2013). Pharmaceutical waste is defined by UK Department of health (2013), as expired, unused, spilt, and contaminated medicinal products, drugs, vaccines and sera that are no longer required and need to be disposed of appropriately; and/ or discarded items contaminated with medicinal, such as bottles or boxes with residues, gloves, masks, connecting tubing, syringe bodies and drug vials. Abou-auda HS (2003), defined medication wastage as any medication or drug product that had been dispensed by a prescription or buy over the counter (OTC) which is not fully consumed. Chapter two 2. Literature review 2.1 causes of medication wastage Drugs are wasted when dispensed to patients who are not taken them. In order to minimise the wastage of medications, it is important to investigate the causes behind medicines being returned, unused, and wasted by the patients. A review of the possible factors evidenced to potentially cause medication waste was conducted to summarise the most important causes of medicine returned unused. 2.1.1 Patient death Medications being returned unused by the patients resulting from patient death was reported in six studies. Mackridge et al. (2007), a cross sectional study of returned medicines to fifty one community pharmacies and forty two general practitioner surgeries in Eastern Birmingham (UK) over eight weeks, Cameron (1996), a self-reporting questionnaire study in 58 community pharmacies in Alberta (Canada) over eight weeks, and Ekedahl (2006), a cross sectional study included fifty nine community pharmacies in Sweden reported that patient death was the most common cause of medication waste. In the study by Langley et al. (2005), a small cross sectional observational study in eight community pharmacies and five general practitioner surgeries in East Birmingham/UK over four weeks, patient death was the second most common cause of returned unused medicines by the patients. Data from Cook A (1996), a cross sectional study of returned medicines to seventeen community pharmacies over one month in UK, Hawksworth et al. (1996), a cross sectional study of returned medicines included thirty community pharmacies in UK, Coma et al. (2008), a cross sectional study of returned medicines to 38 community pharmacies over three months showed that patient death was reported but accounted only for about quarter of all returned unused medicines. 2.1.2 Medication changed or discontinued There is a proof in the literature that changing medications is a considerable cause of medication returned unused by the patients, it is reported as a common cause of medication waste (Cameron 1996, Cook 1996, Hawksworth et al. 1996, Morgan 2001, Daniszewsi et al.2002, Langley et al. 2005, Abahussain et al. 2006, Ekedahl 2006, Mackridge et al. 2007, Braund et al. 2008, Coma et al. 2008, Braund and Gn et al. 2009, Braund and Peake et al. 2009, James et al. 2009). Data from (Hawksworth et al. 1996, Daniszewsi et al.2002, Langley et al. 2005, Abahussain et al. 2006, Braund et al. 2008), found that changing medications was the most common reported cause of medication being wasted. 2.1.3 Medication Expired 2.2 The environmental impact of unused wasted returned medications The toxic ecological effects of the pharmaceutical presence in the environment was studied and evaluated in the last few years. Data from Heberer (2002) and Woodhouse (2003), confirm the presence of pharmaceuticals in water and considered it serious, as it is not totally removed and even if it is present in trace levels is still considered pollutant to water receivers. The improper household disposal practices of unused medicines, via the local waste, the sewers, and the toilet was identified, as a source of water contamination (Bound, 2006). The effect of pharmaceutical wastes in the environment was linked to possible development of endocrine deactivating compounds, reducing fertility, and antibiotic resistance bacteria. Data from Schwartz et al. (2003), confirmed the development of bacterial resistance as vancomycin resistant enterococci and beta-lactam-hydrolysing Enterobacteriaceae were cultivated from all wastewater biofilms. In the study by Lange et al. (2001), the ‘’feminising effects’’ of endocrine-disrupting compounds, such as ethinyl estradiol, the synthetic hormone used in the contraceptive pill, on fish near wastewater treatment works outfalls was measured. 2.3 The economic impact of unused wasted returned medicine Studies from inside (five) and outside (six) UK, estimated the value of the cost of medication waste are reviewed below. Results from Hawksworth et al. (1996), a cross sectional study included thirty community pharmacies in Kirklees/West Yorkshire (UK) over a period of one month showed an estimated cost of  £37 million of unused medicine were from patients home. Langley et al. (2005), a small cross sectional observational study in eight community pharmacies and five general practitioner surgeries in East Birmingham/UK over four weeks, showed that the total cost of returned medicines was  £3986 and  £3751 respectively. In the study by Mackridge et al. (2007), a cross sectional study reported an estimate of  £75 million value of returned medicines to fifty one community pharmacies and forty two general practitioner surgeries in Eastern Birmingham over eight weeks. In the same year, the UK National Audit Office report, proposed that each year an estimate of  £100 million value of unused returned medicine. As the  £100 million estimate was based on unused medicine that actually returned, this was considered as an underrated figure of the full cost of wasted medicines, as a result the department of health estimated that as much as 10% of all drugs prescribed were wasted (10% of the NHS prescribing budget) which is estimated to be  £800 million-worth of drugs are wasted annually in primary care. Data from Trueman et al. (2010), a research undertaken by the York Health Economics Consortium and London School of Pharmacy in 2009, estimated that the annual cost of the primary and community care medicines wastage in UK NHS was around  £300 million per year ( £ 250-300 million per year), with estimated  £90 million of unused medicines stored in individuals homes,  £110 million returned to community pharmacies over the course of a year, and up to  £50 million of NHS supplied medicines that are disposed of annually by care homes. The authors of this report also estimated that less than 50% of this total figure is cost effectively preventable. International studies from outside UK was also included and reviewed. A Canadian study by Cameron S (1996), in fifty eight pharmacies over eight weeks estimated the cost of unused medicines returned was $60350, the extrapolated cost which included the whole 750 community pharmacies in Alberta during the same eight weeks period was $716400. Coma et al. (2008), a cross sectional study included thirty eight community pharmacies in Barcelona/Spain over a period of three months, showed that the estimated cost of returned medicines was â‚ ¬8,539.9, the extrapolated cost for the 20,461 community pharmacies in whole Spain was a round â‚ ¬129 million. Although the reuse concept of patient’s unused returned medicines is considered unethical in the United Kingdome (UK), the unused medicines are returned in large quantities and have important financial value, with the preponderance considered acceptable to be used again by another patient (Mackridge, 2007). Table 1. Summary of research studies evaluating the economic impact of wasted medicine Study Study setting and duration Study method Country Main Findings Hawksworth et al. (1996) 30 CPs over duration of 1 month Cross sectional questionnaire UK A total of 1,091 items were returned by 366 patients with estimated value of  £37 million Langley et al. (2005) 8 CP and 5 GPs over duration of 4 weeks Cross sectional observational study UK A total of 340 items were returned (42 to GPs and 298 to CPs). The total cost of returned items was  £3986 to GPs and  £3751 CPs. Mackridge et al. (2007) 51 CPs and 42 GPs over duration of 8 weeks Cross sectional study UK A total of 3765 items were returned by 910 patients with estimated value of  £75 million UK National Audit Office report (2007) Based on previous analysis conducted by department of health Based on previous analysis conducted by department of health UK Proposed that each year an estimate of  £100 million value of unused returned medicine. Trueman et al. (2010) 403 of the 466 items identified in the public survey were able to be priced. Costs were identified /item using British National Formulary (BNF). Public survey UK Estimated that the annual cost of the primary and community care medicines wastage in UK NHS was around  £300 million per year ( £ 250-300 million per year). Cameron S (1996) 58 CPs in Alberta (8% of provincial total) over duration of 8 weeks Self-reporting questionnaire Canada The estimated cost of the unused medicines returned was $60350. The extrapolated cost for 750 CPs is in Alberta during the same 8 week period was $716400. Morgan (2001) Sample of 73 of Hampshire retirement community citizens aged 65 years or older. over duration of 7 months cross-sectional pilot survey/ Questionnaire US The total cost of 2078 wasted pills was US $ 2,011.00 with mean annual cost of wasted medication was $30.47/person (range = $0-$131.56). Individual costs were modest, but if $30/individual demonstrate a low estimate of average annual cost of waste, the US extrapolated cost was estimated to be not less than $1 billion per year. Abou-auda (2003) A total of 1641 households participated (1554 from Saudi Arabia, 87 from other countries) Questionnaire / Pilot study Saudi Arabia, and capital cities of Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, and United Arab Emirates U.A.E The estimated cost of unused medicines by families in Saudi Arabia capital cities of Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, and United Arab Emirates (U.A.E) was $150 million. Coma et al. (2008) 38 CPs over duration of 3 months Cross sectional questionnaire Spain The estimated cost of returned medicines was â‚ ¬8,539.9. The extrapolated cost for the 20,461 CPs in whole Spain was â‚ ¬129.6 million El-Hamamsy (2011) 20 CPs over duration of 1 month Questionnaire (Closed-ended questions used only) Cairo/Egypt The total wholesale price of returned drugs calculated at 10988.84 Egyptian pounds (around $1962.32 US) Hassali et al. (2012) Two parts: 1) Medicine wastage in the patients’ home. 2) Medicine wastage by the benefactor at the pharmacy desk. over duration of 6 months A descriptive study of two parts: 1) Prospective randomised community based trial. 2) Wasted medicines were collected from the patients who pass back the unwanted medicines to the pharmacy desk in the Hospital. Malaysia The total cost of the returned medications within 6 months was MYR 59,566.50 (Malaysian ringgit) with a monthly average of about MYR 9,927.75. the extrapolated cost for one year of the medications returned was MYR 119,133.00 Information from medication waste campaign website illustrated that the estimated cost of unused medication ( £300 million/year) could pay (by the average cost) for 11,778 more community nurses, 19,799 more drug treatment courses for breast cancer, 101,351 more knee replacements, 80,906 more hip replacements, and 300,000 more drug treatment courses for Alzheimers. In 2012 the NHS of Berkshire started major actions to reduce medicine waste, data from the NHS south central press release, showed that an estimate cost of wasted medicine across the Berkshire NHS and south central was  £20 million per year. The full cost of wasted medicine is not only the cost of returned medicines as estimated by the studies reviewed above (Table 1), in addition the cost of the destroying processes of the returned medicines, and the hidden costs of non-compliance/non-adherence effects which was not studied should be added to the full cost of wasted medicines in future research (UK National Audit Office Report, 2007). 2.4 Disposal practices for unused medications 2.5 Public perceptions about unused/wasted pharmaceuticals 2.6 Medication reuse and recycling A medicine reuse concept involves the return of unused and/or sealed medicines to a pharmacy, healthcare facility or charitable organisation for subsequent redistribution to recipients locally or internationally. This was implemented on a charitable basis in the United States of America (USA) and in developing countries which experienced poor medicine supply (Bero, 2010). Although such practice is considered unethical and not approved in UK, it may have environmental and economic advantages as many of these considered acceptable to be used again (Mackridge, 2007). Ipsos MORI conducted 1,101 face to face interviews for Sustainable Development Unit of the UK NHS (SDU) with respondents aged fifteen and more using around one hundred and fifty sample points. The research was carried out in two periods between the eleven of November and the fifth of December 2011. All data was weighed to reverberate the population profile of British people aged fifteen and more. Data from this recent survey reported that around half of the British people (52%) agreed to accept reissued medicines returned (that are unused and the safety was checked) by other patients while 32% said that they would not. According to Dr David Pencheon the director of sustainability unit, medicine reuse concept had been unaccepted in the past based on the assumption that patients are not willing to take the medicine returned by others. In healthcare system, the health care provider is always deviate strongly on the side of safety caution and discard medicines. For the time beings, the economics of this behaviour need to be reconsidered (Cooper, 2012). Chapter Three Research plan Ecological Impact Is medicine being wasted No Yes No Imagine that Mr. Smith who is ill with diabetes is prescribed four medications each month. He doesn’t pay for his medicines. He use all medicines as prescribed. Imagine that Mr. Smith who is ill with diabetes is prescribed four medications each month. He doesn’t pay for his medicines. He sometimes fails to take his medicines as prescribed. Yes Appendices Appendix 1 (WHO and RCN Definitions and classifications of health care wastes Infectious waste Waste contaminated by blood and its secondary products, cultures and supplies of infectious agents, waste come from isolated patients, any infected thrown away diagnostic samples with blood and body fluids, infected animals from laboratories, and contaminated swabs, bandages, and equipment such as disposable medical devices. Pathological waste Recognizable parts of the body and contaminated animal dead bodies. Genotoxic waste Very dangerous, mutagenic, teratogenic, and carcinogenic, such as cytotoxic drugs and their metabolites. Pharmaceutical waste Expired, unused, and contaminated drugs; vaccines and sera Radioactive waste Such as contaminated glass materials with radioactive diagnostic or therapeutic materials. Heavy metals waste Such as broken mercury thermometers. Chemicals Such as broken mercury thermometers Sharps Such as syringes, needles, disposable scalpels and blades Hazardous or Non Hazardous waste Clinical waste if it contains or is contaminated with a medicine containing either: A pharmaceutically-active substance (a substance able to affect biological systems); or A dangerous substance such as chemicals at sufficient concentration to produce a hazardous property. Clinical or Non Clinical waste Hazardous if it contains or is contaminated with a cytotoxic or cytostatic medicine. Other medicines are not hazardous waste. Offensive waste or sometimes called hygiene waste) Is waste that is non-infectious and not clinical, but may cause offence due to the presence of recognisable health care waste materials, body fluids or odour, and secretions or excretions or that collection and disposal is not subject to special requirements in order to prevent infection. *Adapted from WHO fact sheet (2011), and RCN guidance (2014)